The term civilization is used to describe complex human societies with a high level of culture, science, industry and government. A civilization is distinguished by its centralized leadership and a culture that values learning and knowledge. This type of society is generally thought to have emerged in the cities of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and China.
It is possible that other human communities reached this level of development, such as those in the Indus Valley and the Andes. Whether or not they are considered true civilizations is a matter of opinion, but all have some features in common. For example, they all developed cities and invented forms of writing. They also domesticated animals and developed social structures with classes and hierarchies.
Civilization began when humans in a few regions discovered agriculture, which is the deliberate cultivation of plants. The development of farming allowed people to grow enough food to support large populations. This was a crucial advance, because hunting and gathering can only provide about a third of the calories that a person needs to survive. Civilized people could then devote more time and energy to other endeavors, such as developing art, music, architecture and organized religion.
Another key development was the invention of metallurgy, which made it possible to manufacture tools and weapons from metals such as copper and bronze. Metallurgy was essential for the development of civilization because it allowed people to expand their trade and economic activities. In addition, metallurgy allowed for the development of more advanced tools, such as arrowheads and adzes, which were necessary to improve agricultural production.
At about the same time that agriculture and metallurgy were being developed, human populations expanded across the world. The first ancient humans moved overland to the lands of Mesopotamia and Egypt, by water to India and China, and by land and sea to the Americas. These advances allowed human groups to become much larger than previous hunter-gathering communities and to develop the characteristics that we normally associate with civilization.
In addition to the division of labor, central planning and government-based decision making, all civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures. Some of the more obvious cultural traits include a wide variety of arts and crafts, professional architecture and literature, organized religion and complex systems of law, coercion and control.
However, it is important to remember that a society does not have to be ‘civilized’ to be healthy and functional. A highly ‘civilized’ society may still be unhealthy or even evil. Moreover, the term civilization carries a lot of theoretical baggage that can obscure its meaning. In most cases, there is no reason to use the word if a different one—such as empire, state, confederacy, polity or socio-political group—can be substituted without losing its meaning. A better approach is to teach students the history of human societies as they learn about them, without worrying about the ‘civilization’ label. This allows the study of history to be a more exciting and meaningful experience for students.