Civilization describes a complex way of life that developed out of the human capacity to live in cities, with shared methods of communication and administrative infrastructure. All civilizations have a division of labor and the development of specialized roles, such as government administration, bureaucracy, and the development of a class system in which people are grouped according to their level of income or the type of work they do, such as farming, mining, teaching, or working in a store.
Early civilizations were often unified by religion, a system of beliefs and behaviors that deal with the meaning of existence. Religion helped bring people together, create a common understanding of the world, and support the power of those in leadership roles. For example, in Ancient Egypt, kings-later called pharaohs-practiced divine kingship, claiming to be representatives, or even human incarnations, of gods. Politics and religion were also closely linked. In some cases, political leaders acted as religious leaders, while in others, the roles of governing and faith were separated from those who led the army or economy.
While the term “civilization” sounds positive, it is not without controversy. Anthropologists, who study the evolution of humans, have debated the meaning and use of the word for decades. Some anthropologists have even dropped the word, preferring to use terms such as “savagery” and “barbarism.” However, most scholars agree that civilization refers to the human ability to live in cities in social groups, whereas savagery and barbarism are other ways of living that do not include such a degree of societal organization.
Many historians also point to a certain amount of cultural development as a necessary feature of civilization. This includes a written language, the ability to cultivate crops, currency, contract and tort-based legal systems, and artistic developments such as architecture and music. It also includes the ability to understand and harness science and technology. Some historians have suggested that a civilization must have a certain degree of scientific advancement before the term can be used to describe it.
The most important feature of a civilization, though, is its urbanization-the process by which a society becomes a city. This is considered a necessary step because a civilization cannot exist without a sedentary population. Cities need a steady supply of food, and the only way to obtain it is through a production system that produces more than enough for all people in a city.
Once a civilization has a sufficient supply of food, it can expand its territory and develop new technologies at a much faster rate. Some civilizations have expanded to include the entire globe, while others have collapsed, usually as a result of environmental damage and internal warfare. Joseph Tainter’s theory of the “Diminishing Returns of Complexity” suggests that a society reaches a point at which it can no longer increase its complexity, and then begins to decline. This decline may be accelerated by war, overpopulation, or natural disasters.