Civilization describes a stage of human development that involves a relatively high level of organization. It may refer to a specific culture, such as Egyptian civilization or Mayan civilization or Western civilization, or it may be used more broadly to describe any advanced society. It is the opposite of barbarism and chaos, with a range of diverse cultural traits that includes organized religion, development in art, mathematics, writing, contractual and tort-based legal systems, metallurgy, and political structures.
The term civilization derives from the Latin civis, meaning “citizen.” While there is no precise definition of what civilization is, it is usually used to describe societies that are advanced enough to manage their own affairs and sustain a large population. This includes a significant number of urban inhabitants, developed agriculture and trade, sophisticated division of labor, and government.
Early civilizations were often unified by religion. This shared belief system enabled people from diverse backgrounds to find common ground and work together. It also provided a source of legitimacy for political leaders, who were commonly considered to be emissaries or even incarnations of gods. The pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, for example, were widely believed to be divine kings.
Religious beliefs and philosophies can also help explain why some civilizations thrived while others fell into decline. Historian Arnold J. Toynbee, in his multivolume A Study of History, argued that most civilizations declined due to moral or religious decline. However, he cited other reasons as well, such as environmental damage, war, and dependence on long-distance trade for necessary resources.
Unlike hunter-gatherers, prehistoric farmers developed cities, which allowed people to live close to their food sources. Cities were also a focal point for social interaction, with distinct classes of workers that specialized in various aspects of city life. The emergence of these specialties, in turn, helped a city develop a strong sense of identity and unity.
A civilization’s ability to generate wealth through the cultivation of crops and the trade of these goods led to a rise in artistic, scientific, mathematical, and technological achievements. In addition, the growing numbers of urban dwellers allowed for more advanced social hierarchies. These included a privileged ruling class, a skilled middle class, and a larger working class that performed less specialized but still important roles such as artisans and servants.
While there is no one definition of a civilization, many scholars have sought to categorize societies according to their degree of advancement. For a while, the term was closely associated with Western civilization, which is typically defined as countries in the Group of 7 industrialized democracies. However, this has changed in recent decades as a variety of cultures that were once dismissed as not being “civilized” have been re-evaluated. For example, the African Kingdom of Zimbabwe, with its awe-inspiring Great Zimbabwe, or the non-literate Inca are now recognized as civilizations.